Tort review Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Tort review - Case Study Example Koz negligence, the prevailing comparative negligence guidelines and concept of swimmers’ legally supported to claim damages since their proportion of contribution was less than 50% 1. Under The New York modified comparative negligence rule, an injured party may recover damages only if he/she is less than 50% at fault for the injury or damages. However, the recovered amount may be reduced in proportion to the degree that the injured party was at fault. For instance, if the Peter Koz is determined to be 80% at fault and the group of swimmers is determined to be 20% at fault, the swimmers can collect for the damages because they were less than 50% at fault. However, Peter Koz insurance company might only offer to pay for 80% of your damages2. The injured party had upper hand in negotiating with the insurance company and a settlement was reached to compensate them. If the settlement could not be reached, the courts could make the final determination of comparative negligence4. The swimmers were entitled to damages as evidence indicated that there contribution to the case was 25% which is less than the 50% bar rule. Peter Koz will not prevail because his contribution is above 50% and will compensate the swimmers the damages as estimated at

The Central Nervous System from Superficial to Deep Essay Example for Free

The Central Nervous System from Superficial to Deep Essay Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to understand the way that nervous system structures are arranged inside of the brain from the most superior, which would be the cortex or telencephalon to the most inferior, which would be the medulla oblongata. We are observing all the structures in the brain, as well as the protective tissue that surrounds it. Procedure: I had to use Primal Pictures, as it was necessary to complete this lab. Once logged in, there is a list of choices to click on as to where you want to go. On the homepage, click on the 3D Head and Neck and then go to the Brain folder. Next click on Meninges to access the pictures. Begin at layer 9. To identify the structures, just click on them. With Primal Pictures, there are different controls on the page that allow us to be able to view the brain, or any structure that we are looking at from different angles and different layers. There is also a summary of the structure that is being looked at. Using the guide that Dr. Poll has provided and Primal Pictures, we are to go through the different structures and gather all the information necessary to complete this lab. Results: Following the guidelines on our instruction sheet, we were to begin at Layer 9 of the brain, which showed us the meninges. From here, we could see the structures that protect the brain. Brain protection begins with the skull; it is the outermost layer. The three layers of meningeal linings are inferior to the skull. These include the dura mater, which is the outermost layer. It is also the toughest layer and in English is translated to â€Å"hard mother.† The dura mater has two layers. Inferior to the dura mater is the arachnoid mater. The most inferior layer of the meninges is the pia mater. It is also the deepest and softest layer. Next we looked at the sinuses that are part of the nervous system in Layer 5. A sinus is a cavity within a bone or other tissue. They are channels, or pathways that connect together allowing drainage of the veins that are in the brain. In other words, they function to help the collection and return flow of venous blood and  cerebrospinal fluid d rainage from the tissues and veins in the cerebrum. In Layer 4, we can see the falx cerebri. It is an infolding of the dura mater and separates the cerebral hemispheres. Now moving to Layer 10 in the brain folder, we can observe the cerebral cortex and all the structures inferior to it. The outer surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex. It is composed of gray matter and just inferior to it is the white mater. We also can see the corpus callosum, which is a large bundle of axons that connect the right cerebral hemisphere to the left cerebral hemisphere. These axons carry information, in the form of nerve impulses, from one hemisphere to the other. The lateral ventricles are superior to the diencephalon, but are inferior to the corpus callosum. In Layer 3, we can see the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia form a set of interconnected nuclei in the forebrain. They receive a large amount of input from cerebral cortex and after processing it, send it back to the cerebral cortex via thalamus. The different components of the basal ganglia are the caudate nucleus, the putamen and the globus pallidus. The caudate nucleus is the most superior part. It is superior and lateral when compared to the thalamus. The most lateral part of the basal ganglia is the putamen and the most medial part is the globus pallidus. The limbic system is a complex set of brain structures that lie on both sides of the thalamus. It includes structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon. It includes the olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, and amygdala to name a few. This system supports many functions that include emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. It is responsible for emotional life and has do with the formation of memories. The limbic system surrounds that structures that make up the diencephalon and is posterior to the temporal lobe. From the cerebrum view in Layer 5, we can locate the insula, or hidden lobe. It is posterior to the lateral sulcus. In other words, it is hidden beneath the lateral sulcus. In Layer 3, we can see the sulci and gyri. The longitudinal fissure is what separates the left and right hemispheres. The central sulcus separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe. It lies in between the precentral gyri (forms the motor strip) and postcentral (forms the primary sensory cortex) gyri. The lateral sulcus, also called the Sylvian fissure, is the most lateral boundary. It separates both the frontal lobe and parietal lobe, which are above, from the temporal lobe, which is below. Conclusion: In conclusion, we â€Å"dissected† the brain from the most superficial layer to the deepest layer and from the most superior layer to the most inferior layer. We were able to do so by using Primal Pictures. Being able to look at each structure from every angle and different layers is very beneficial when first learning about them. This site gives very detailed representations of the structures and explanations of how each structure works, not only on its own, but as a whole. All the structures in the central nervous system that we observed are in some way related and allow for communication to take place, as well as allowing the central nervous system to function as it is supposed to.

Importance of Using the ACARS System

Importance of Using the ACARS System Abbreviations ACARS: Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ADS-B: Automatic dependent surveillance broadcast CMU: Communication Management Unit CDU: Control Display Unit FMS: Flight Management System ATC: Air Traffic Control AOC: Aeronautical Operational Control AAC: Airline Administrative Control NOTAM: Notice to Airmen VHF: Very High Frequency VDL: VHF Data Link MAC: Message Authentication Code AES: Advance Encryption Standard SHA: Secure Hash Algorithm CA: Certificate Authority ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organisation IPsec: Internet Protocol Security In this report the importance of using the ACARS system in the communication between the aircrafts and the ground units such as Air traffic control (ATC), aeronautical operational control (AOC) and airline administrative Control (AAC). (2) Also, the need of securing the communication channel against passive and active attackers will be identified and analysed. The ACARS system is used to transmit data both from aircraft to ground and from ground to aircraft. The data transmitted from the aircraft to the ATC will communicate requests and receipts for clearances and instructions when the aircraft is on the ground, during the phases of take-off and landing and finally during the time the aircraft is in the air. The ACARS is system is also used for communication between the aircrafts and the AOC and AAC ground units. The data transmitted between these three entities is about various aspects of the aircraft, weather information and observations, NOTAMS, flight plan and any diversion from the flight plan, technical performance, possible system failures and any special information regarding the flight and its passengers. ACARS system to transmit data to the ground receivers, the FMC hardware is used on newer aircrafts or the CDU on older ones. The communication is accomplished by using the FMS unit and a small printer in the aircrafts and similar hardware on the ground. The FMS transmits the data to either a satellite or a ground antennas, regarding the altitude of the aircraft. After either the satellite or the antenna will transmit the data through the communication network to the appropriate ground unit using a private network. Due to the reason that these data are crucial and must not be altered or even sometimes monitored by unauthorised users the security of the communication channel and the data should be the top priority of the airlines. To achieve that the data transmitted should always maintain the three major aspects of information security which are: Confidentiality Integrity Availability During the early years of the aviation industry communication channels were only needed between the ATC and the pilots. There were no ways to transmit data regarding the aircrafts avionic systems, engines and integrity, mainly due to the reason that there was not such advanced technology, on both the communication channels and on the aircrafts. The only communication channel available was the VHF channels that in our days is the least trusted protocol. As the aircrafts developed, the boundaries were extended, and led to a rapid increase in air traffic. In order to co-op with this, the aircrafts manufacturers decided to improve the quality and quantity of the systems aboard the aircrafts in order to protect them from mid-air collisions and also help the ATCs to manage the traffic easier. From the moment that the aviation instruments on board the aircraft changed from analogue to digital, a breakthrough was achieved, leading many companies to develop software and hardware that allowed the improvement of the communication and data transmission between the aircrafts and the ground. Along with these improvements, the aircrafts critical systems were able to continuously provide the data recorder information regarding their condition. During this phase the CPDLC was developed in order to minimize the acoustic misunderstandings (6) provided accountability and made the communication easier, more efficient and safer to transmit and receive l ong messages (6). Although in my opinion this system would make the communication between the pilots and the ATC easier and safer, it wasnt widely used because of security threats like message manipulation or injection (6) that were not possible to be detected. Also, a major backdoor to the system in my opinion was that there was no authentication leading to eavesdropping or spoof clearances (6). For the improvement of safety and to be able to improve the accident investigations, the authorities decided that it would be helpful, that these data should be transmitted to the ground and in order to improve the communications between the aircrafts and the ATCs, a new system was developed, which is called ACARS. Along with it new techniques of communication and data transmission were introduced that allowed the aircraft, ATCs and airlines headquarters to communicate with each other by sending short texts. ACARS was introduced during the 80s and as the years passed it became very popular among the airlines. It allowed direct communication between aircrafts and ATCs for requesting and receiving instructions and clearances. The ability of communicating between the aircraft and the AOC and AAC was introduced, that allowed the exchange of information about the weather, possible issues with the aircrafts systems, NOTAMs, passenger information, etc. In the early years of aviation, the computers were not very capable in intercepting or manipulating a message that was transmitted and therefore there was little need for that system to be secure. As the years pass and computers became stronger, together with the knowledge of people, possible unauthorised monitoring of message transmission or even manipulating the messages transmitted between the aircrafts and the ground was a threat to aviation. In order to solve this issues, security mechanisms were placed in order to protect the communication channels and the data transmitted. The security mechanisms placed, are updated regularly in order to maintain the information secure against new threats and attackers. The difficulty of maintaining a secure communication channel is becoming greater, due to the reason that the cost of hardware that allow you to monitor the information transmitted by aircrafts are very cheap and easily accessible. This together with the increasing knowledge of people on how to use them the wrong way and with the intention to cause harm for various reasons, makes the work of the ones trying to protect these systems, very difficult and crucial for the safety of the passengers and aircraft crew lives. As the workload for the pilots in command increased greatly due to the increased traffic, reduction of the crew members in aircrafts and the need to maximize profit without undermining safety and in order to protect the pilots from making mistakes or forget to complete the necessary steps for the safe conduct of a flight, researchers were working on a new way of communication between the aircraft and the ground operations. That software was ACARS and was developed in the 1980s. ACARS is a digital datalink system (3) that allows the pilots, ATC and the airlines headquarters to exchange short messages no matter of the location of the aircraft around the world. In order to achieve that the aircraft is equipped with an avionics computer which is called Communications Management Unit (CMU), a control display unit (CDU) and a printer. The CMU was designed to be able to send and receive digital messages (3) regarding aspects of the flight, instructions and clearances from the ATC, weather forecasts, NOTAMs and information to and from the companys headquarters regarding the aircrafts performance and special needs about the passengers. In order to achieve the level of communication needed, the ACARS system is using different types of communication media. The two media used to communicate between the aircraft and the ground by using satellites when the aircrafts are at higher altitudes and radio antennas at lower altitudes. Before the first implementations of the ACARS system, the communication between the aircrafts and the ground was performed by VHF voice channels. As the technology advanced, new way of communication were developed. During the first periods of implementation of the ACARS system the ARINC organisation, developed a service that a allowed for the VHF communication service to be upgraded by a new service that allowed the use of digital telex formats (3) to the VHF communication channel. During the 90s this led to the standardization of a VHF Digital Link. As the implementation of the ACARS software by airliners became widespread, new services were developed in order to make the communication channels more efficient. SITA company, during this phase had developed a large ground communication network that was connecting places around the world. In order to further enhance the abilities of ACARS, SITA integrated their ground communication network to be able and cooperate with ACARS already existing communication channels between aircraft and ground. In my opinion the ACARS system was designed very cleverly because it was able to cooperate with many types of aircraft communications equipment such as VHF, Inmarsat, sitcom, iridium satellite, VDL and high frequency data link (6). More detailed, SITA managed to merge both VHF and VDL air to ground communication channel together with the ground network it had already developed and to provide an end to end communication channel between aircrafts and ground operations no matter the type of flights. Both short haul and long haul routes were supported. Figure .1 ACARS Setup (9) ACARS security is very important for the safe conduct of flights. Two different types of security were implemented. The first one was called DSP-based architecture and is only capable to protect ACARS messages during transmission from the aircraft to the ground, leaving the ground network unprotected and risking attacks from hackers open. For that reason, there is an end to end security architecture was proposed and developed. In order for the security of the ACARS system to be complete it will have to maintain confidentiality, integrity and availability to the information transmitted at all times, both in the communication channel between the aircraft and the ground and also in the ground network. On the end to end solution proposed in the article The Approach of ACARS Data Encryption and Authentication (5), The proposed security will be using symmetric and asymmetric cryptography, a hybrid system that could solve the problems of using just one of the methods of cryptography, along with digital signatures to provide adequate privacy and integrity (5) to the messages. The issues that came up with the symmetric cryptography were that in order to communicate with each other, a key had to be exchanged between the sender and the recipients of the message. This unique key was designed to be known just by the sender and the recipient of the message in order to protect it from unauthorized users. This proved to be very difficult to maintain secure due to the large number of users that are using ACARS to communicate. On the other hand, asymmetric cryptography was able to solve this problem but it required the use of a large size keys that led to a rather large amount of bandwidth requi red just for the exchange of the keys that kept secure the communication, which was a problem due to the limited amount of bandwidth the ACARS system was designed to require. This hybrid system that was proposed, made use of a key derivation algorithm called Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman which is using an elliptic curve and certain points in order to find the private key. By using the elliptic curve along with the private key, it was able to generate the public key of both the aircraft and the ground station (sender and recipient). By using this technique, the communication channel was secure because it was very difficult for the attacker to find the private key even though the exchange of public key is intercepted (5). For the receiver to be able to decrypt and use the private key a key derivation function is needed which in this case is the MAC. In order to provide encryption to the data transmitted the AES algorithm is used in combination with the SHA 256 algorithm. The number 256 after the SHA acronym means the length of the random binary sequence that is used as the key for the AES (5) algorithm. Due to the reason of the limited bandwidth that ACARS is designed to be using, the message data transmitted and the necessary data transmitted to provide security should be compressed as much as possible. In order to do so every letter, number or symbol will have to be encoded to a 6bit stream during the encryption phase. In order for the recipient to be able to decode it and read the correct message, the MAC of the encrypted data will have to be read and be decrypted to an ACARS readable character. Also, the correct MAC value will have to be calculated in order for the message to be authenticated. During the testing phase of the above end to end security mechanism, eavesdropping was possible to be done but no actual data were able to be read, due to the AES that was used in the encryption of the message, so confidentiality was achieved. Privacy was also achieved because if the message was manipulated, the MAC value would have been changed and the recipient would have detected the change in value. Finally for the digital signature to be correct, the assumptions that the CA was trustworthy had to be made. Wireless Communication Security Due to the reason that the main communication channel between the aircraft and the ground stations will always be wireless, some necessary aspects of security will always have to exist in order to able to say that the channel is secure. According to the authors of the article (7), in order for a security protocol be acceptable, it must meet some requirements. The first one is the mutual entity authentication which is able to provide security by identifying the sender and the receiver. Also, the Asymmetric algorithms are very critical according to my opinion, regarding the key distribution that will allow the sender and the receiver authenticate each other messages. Next in order to prevent unauthorised people to access the communication channel, the two parties must agree to the keys used and to be able to confirm them when needed along with being able to control them, maintain the key freshness (7) so no replay attacks could be performed and also to protect secrets of old communications in the case that an unauthorised person gains access to a session key. All the above aspects, in my opinion are critical in order to maintain privacy in the communication channel. According to the article (7) which I agree with, some compromises should be taken in order to have the security options tailored to the needs of your systems. In our case the ACARS system was designed to have a small amount of load in transmitting data and therefore and IPsec with fixed pre-shared keys (7) would be very helpful because it has limited data exchanged in order to provide security. On the other hand, protocols based on asymmetric cryptosystems (7) are able to provide better security but in a higher data load cost. Wireless Communication Threat Model In order to be able to provide better solutions in the wireless communication channel, we must be able to identify the threat that are possible to be faced during the transfer of data. In order to do so we must have a threat model that is tailored to our needs. In order to create a threat model, we must also know the adversaries capabilities. In the case of wireless networks according to the article (8) authors, which are the one that ACARS uses, the adversary usually has the ability to receive and transmit data (8), should be able to monitor the network and in order to do the previous two, he must have knowledge on how the network was setup. Commonly, if the attacker is able to eavesdrop a wireless, he will be able to inject traffic (8) into the network. All of the above capabilities in my opinion are depended to the knowledge he has and to the money he is willing to spend in order to be able to perform such tasks. The main attacks he can perform to a wireless network has to do with spoofing attacks (8), replay attacks (8) which I believe is easily solved by the freshness aspect of security, eavesdropping (8) compromise or introduction of nodes, wireless jamming (8) and finally a denial of service (8) attack by increasing extremely the load of the network. ACARS Security per Honeywell Per Honeywell, ACARS is using a message security system that is able to provide message authentication, confidentiality and data integrity, which are the basic aspects that need to be protected. Based on an ICAO document regarding the security plan a public key infrastructure and other cryptographic algorithms are used in order to protect the data transmitted. More specifically, according to the ARINC specification 823 (4) the security of the messages is split in two different parts. The first part was published on 2007 and contains everything regarding the framework of the security, such as algorithms, protocols and message formats. The second parts are about the key management of this security mechanism and was published 1 year later and contains information regarding the key life cycle and the how a certificate is managed. Furthermore, two different security provisions were developed and each of them had different characteristics regarding the mechanisms used in order to protect the data transmitted. The first one is called ATN/OSI Security and it was described in the ICAO document 9880. This kind of security foresight used digital signatures which uses the Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman cryptographic algorithm combined with a SHA256 in order to generate and verify the signatures. As for Message authentication, it uses hashed MAC with a 32bit MAC length. A key agreement is used in order to share the public key that will then be used in order for the recipient to be able to derive the secret key and be able to decode the message sent. The second one is called ACARS Security ARINC 823. This one also uses the digital signatures in order to sign the message and the specifications of the digitals signatures are similar to the first security foresight, making use of the elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman algorithm combined with a SHA256 for the signature generation and verification. Again, for the message authentication a hashed MAC is being used but in this case the length of the MAC is not standard. It could be 32 bit, 64 bit or even 128 bit, with the default one to be the 32 bit. The main difference between the two security foresights is that the previous didnt require a confidentiality mechanism to be in place. On the other hand, this one uses for encryption and AES128 cipher algorithm that is mainly used to encrypt and decrypt the messages. Finally, the key establishment mechanism is similar on both security foresights, meaning that both of them use an elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman with SHA256 algorithm to provide the communication channel with a secret key agreement, shared public key and the derivation of the secret key. Threats As the technology is improved, the computers become more powerful, leading in the implementation of better security mechanisms but also in increasing amount of computing power that possible attackers have in their hands. This along with the ability given to the public to be able to track the flights using the ADS-B can have possible backdoors that can threaten the safety of the flights. The main use of this surveillance technology is for the improvement of the safety and efficiency of the flights. This technology also lead to the creation of a web application and smartphone application, that gave the ability to anyone to be able to track any aircraft in the world that had this technology active. Anyone with a cheap hardware setup could receive the information sent to the ground by the aircrafts. If an attacker is able to intercept these signals, he is able to perform passive attacks like eavesdropping the communications or furthermore, block the response from the ATC (jamming) and finally send his response back (message injection), could result in the attacker to be able to perform an active attack and penetrate the aircrafts navigation system. Another possible attack according the article (6) this attacks could result in the virtually modifying the trajectory of an aircraft (6). After the attacker, has gained access to the aircraft systems, he can receive information via the ACARS system. If the ACARS system is not protected correctly, the attacker will be able to exploit the systems and either insert false information to the avionics or just attach a virus or malware and have a constant access to the aircrafts avionics and information. Furthermore, the attacker could gain access to the FMS he will be able to mess with the navigation and flight planning such as waypoints, altitudes, speeds, alternate the destination airport of the flight etc. This will result to the attacker being in complete control of the aircraft, with the pilots not being able to do much in order to gain back the control of the aircraft. Although the ACARS system was updated regularly and the ACARS AMS was developed in order to provide end to end security, many airlines decided to not use it and instead provide some security by obscurity (6), which according to my opinion could lead in more risks and better security because no one has tested the security algorithms that are used and therefore if there is any vulnerability in the security algorithm, the company will never be aware of it, leaving the communication channel open to zero day attacks. The cost of the hardware needed to complete such an attack is not high. Using online shopping web applications or other sellers, the possible attacker will be able to buy the necessary hardware such as FMS hardware, air to ground transmitters, ACARS manager hardware and other hardware, in order to perform such an attack. By using one of the most known flight simulator software, combined with the necessary hardware and finally by exploiting any vulnerabilities in the security of ACARS and FMS systems, they can manage to gain control of the aircraft with low cost. There are many ways the attacker could gain access or perform attacks against the aircrafts. These ways may include attacks via the internet by exploiting bugs in web applications, vulnerabilities against software, SQL injections to databases or other vulnerabilities that are not fixed in mobile applications. There are two different threat models according to the authors of the article On perception and reality in the wireless air traffic communication security (6). The two different threat models are the traditional aviation threat model (6) and the Modern threat model (6). The main difference between these two according the article are that the software-defined radios are widely available to the public and along with them to possible attackers and the change between analogue instruments and digital instruments, with the second ones to give the ability to the users to transmit more data in electronic form. These could lead to an increase in the abilities hackers to eavesdrop, modify and inject data on the communications channel. The traditional threat model is used from when the first forms of communication were implemented in aviation. As years passed the communication channels were improved and the amount of data that was transmitted increased rapidly. The authors of the article characterize the article as naÃÆ'Â ¯ve (6) of the reasons of inferior technological capabilities and financial capabilities, requirement of inside knowledge and the use of analog communication. (6). I can agree with their opinion because I believe that indeed the threat model is very old and due to the new technologies, along with the low cost of a setup that could allow to interfere with the communications of an aircraft, the risk will be much higher. The second threat model is the modern threat model. It has major changes from the first one due to the increased digitalisation and automation (6) of the aircrafts communication channels. Also, the increased technological capabilities (6) such as cheap hardware could lead to possible attacks that could not be performed when the first threat model was developed. Finally, people could easily gain aviation knowledge (6) from the internet, flight simulator software, which could increase the seriousness of the attacks that could be performed. For the above reasons and from my own experience with aviation knowledge and flight simulator software, I would agree that this model is more up to date and more tailored to identify the threats that todays aircraft face. Concluding on the above-mentioned information, the aviation world and more specifically the security of the aircrafts, crews and passengers are far from safe. This is because even with the security measures that are already researched, the airlines do not always implement them. Also, the technology required and the cost of acquiring such technology makes it easier for attackers to perform either passive or active attacks against aircrafts. The above when combined with the knowledge of an attacker can lead to great threats against the aircrafts. In order to maintain the aviation world safe, the need to reassess the risk of attacks under realistic system models and the development of appropriate countermeasures (6) should be identified and embraced along with new end to end security implementations are proposed and if approved implemented by airlines. Such security mechanisms must be tested in order to be totally sure that all vulnerabilities are patched and that it will never have a backdoor that could allow an attacker to perform an attack. In my opinion in order to be able to be sure that a security mechanisms that will be placed is totally secure, we must first learn our adversaries, understand their capabilities, intentions, motive and upon all knowledge and financial state. Next, we must understand what passive and active attacks an adversary can perform. If we manage to understand the above aspects of our adversaries, then we must understand what has to be done in order to prevent them from launching an attack against the aircraft- ground communications channel and ground network. By having the necessary information about the adversaries and the protection mechanisms that we can implement, then we must evaluate those already implemented and find ways to enhance them. References Smith, M., M. Strohmeier, V. Lenders, and I. Martinovic. On the security and privacy of ACARS. (016 Integrated Communications Navigation and Surveillance (ICNS)): 1-27. Web. 15 Feb. 2017. Aircraft Communications, Addressing and Reporting System. Aircraft Communications, Addressing and Reporting System SKYbrary Aviation Safety. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2017. Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2017. Olive, Michael . ACARS Message Security (AMS) as a Vehicle for Validation of ICAO Doc. 9880 Part IV-B Security Requirements. Proc. of ICAO ACP WG-M Meeting, Belgium, Brussels. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 1-12. Print. Yue, M., and X. Wu. The Approach of ACARS Data Encryption and Authentication. 2010 International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Security (2010): 556-60. Web. 10 Feb. 2017. Strohmeier, Martin, Matthias Schafer, Rui Pinheiro, Vincent Lenders, and Ivan Martinovic. On Perception and Reality in Wireless Air Traffic Communication Security. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems (2016): 1-20. Web. Akram, Raja Naeem, Konstantinos Markantonakis, Keith Mayes, Pierre-Francois Bonnefoi, Damien Sauveron, and Serge Chaumette. Security and performance comparison of different secure channel protocols for Avionics Wireless Networks. 2016 IEEE/AIAA 35th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC) (2016): n. pag. Web. Akram, Raja Naeem, Konstantinos Markantonakis, Royal Holloway, Sharadha Kariyawasam, Shahid Ayub, Amar Seeam, and Robert Atkinson. Challenges of security and trust in Avionics Wireless Networks. 2015 IEEE/AIAA 34th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC) (2015): n. pag. Web. Network Graphic. Digital image. ATC Data Link News. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2017.

Essay example --

Most of Australians are affected by housing loans. 70% of homeowners buy a house in Australian through the housing mortgage loan. Due to the optimistic attitude of the general public about the economic situation, a lot of people buy houses for renting out to obtain stable income. In 2010, the Australian Government authorized the Australian Securities and Investment Commission (ASIC) to regulate exit fees that banks were seeking to impose. The exit fee is the payment that banks require customers to pay for permission to transfer their home loan to another bank, which considers the housing loan being one of the most important factors in exit fees or "terminate†. In an article of The Times, it was reported that an exit fee of $5,178 was charged if a loan of $300,000 was borrowed for 25 years and terminated within 3 years (Martin, 2010). Such an expensive exit fee makes high switching cost for the house loan takers, through which the bank may gain market forces. This article will discuss the switching costs in Australian home loan market and analyze how these switching costs may increase market forces of suppliers in these markets. In addition, this article tries to find out that after exit fees is changed according to the new regulations, what the changes of supplier cost will be and whether their profits will increase or decrease. Switching costs in Australian home loan market â€Å"Switching costs "was first presented by Michael †¢ Porter in 1980, referring to the one-off cost generated in the course of consumers transferring from one provider to another product or service provider. This cost includes not only economy expenses, but also time, energy and emotion, being an important factor of constituting barriers to enterpri... ...lly, the equilibrium is at point A (Q1, P1). With more rivalry and competition between suppliers, S1L shifts to the rights of S2L. The equilibrium point moves from point A to point B (Q2,P2) . As a result, loans price (interest rates) fall from Q1 to Q2 according to Graph 1. Profit is equal to total revenue of minus cost. While total revenue is equal to the price multiplied by the quantityï ¼Ë†price is decreaseï ¼â€°. It can be concluded that the Australian government to develop policies to protect the interests of local people through the intervention of good housing loan market. The Australian government's move to provide a variety of options for Australians, they can freely choose, while reducing the financial risks, the government provides loans to low-income persons through banks at below market rates, and they encourage healthy competition wwithin the home loan market.

One flew over the cuckoos nest

One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, the director refers to the many struggles people individually face in life. Through the conflict between Nurse Ratchet and McCarthy, the movie explores the themes of individuality and rebellion against conformity. With these themes, Forman makes various points which help us understand which situations of repression can lead an individual to insanity. These points include: different situations patients overcome, human dignity, and the pressures we face from society to conform.Through these points, Forman encourages the viewer to consider that people react differently in the face of repression, and makes the viewer realize the value of alternative states of perception, rather than simply writing them off as â€Å"crazy. † Nurse Ratchet Is notorious for her desire to exercise complete control over the men who are under her Jurisdiction on the psych ward, both as patients and as employees. In doing so, Nurse Ratchet becomes a metaphor for the entir e mental institution, the government, society at large or any and every powerful institution that exists to regulate, control, and categorize groups of people.The institutions of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest claim that they categorize the patients as insane in order to â€Å"treat† and â€Å"rehabilitate† them. But it quickly becomes clear in the novel that this rehabilitation is more controlling than it is helpful for any mental ailment: the shock treatment table, the red pills that cause memory loss, the daily meetings that pit men against each other, and the list on Nurse Ratchet's desk to record and reward the men for betraying each other's secrets are all ways to force people to obey, not to sake them well.There Is no recreation outdoors. There Is little exposure to the outside world. All stateless and therapy sessions are scheduled with precision, and to deviate from that schedule is to be a nuisance to Nurse Ratchet. This is exactly as Nurse Ratchet prefers i t to be, because she can strip the humanity of her patients in order to be in complete control and run her ward like a machine. The hospital, Just like society, suppresses the individuality of the patients by gaining control of their lives and forcing them to conform.In the movie, the mental hospital is metaphor for the oppression Forman sees in modern society. Through Chief, we see how his way of interpreting the world emphasizes the oppressive social pressure to conform. He sees modern society as a machinelike, oppressive force and the hospital as a repair shop from the people who do not fit Into their role as cogs in the machine. Those who do not conform to society's rules and conventions are considered defective products and are labeled mentally Ill and sent for treatment. In the movie, the hospital is portrayed as a dangerous place.The patients Charlie Seasick, Chief, gettable. He sees Nurse Ratchet as a â€Å"watchful robot, mechanically controlling the ward†. The hospi tal is not about healing, but about dehumidifying and manipulating the patients until they are weak and willing to conform. Another way in which this is done is through the nurses' need to keep the patients medicated. McCarthy, the protagonist, battles against letting the oppressive society make him into a machinelike drone. He manages to maintain his individuality until his ultimate objective- bringing his individuality to others- is complete.However, when his oldness is provoked one too many times by Nurse Ratchet, he ends up being destroyed by modern society's machines of oppression. Through the points Forman is making in the movie, we begin to see the different situations in which the patients struggle to overcome. Whether insane or not, the hospital is undeniably in control of the fates of its patients. Through the points Forman is making in the movie about the hospital's ways of gaining control of the patients, we see how this parallels with the ways in which society gains con trol over individuals.Musher's character is essential to the novel because he battles against the oppressive society, and holds characteristics that clash with ward- representing sexuality, freedom, and self-determination. Throughout the movie, the sane actions of men collides with the insane actions of the institution. Through Chief, the movie establishes that McCarthy is not, in fact, crazy, but rather that he is trying to manipulate the system to his advantage. Musher's trajectory through the novel is the opposite of Chief's: he starts out sane and powerful but ends up a helpless vegetable, having sacrificed himself for the benefit of all the patients.Even though Bromide's comparisons of the hospital with machinery may seem â€Å"crazy† to readers at the beginning of the movie, they actually reveal his insight into the hospital's large power over the patients. In Mills Formant's One Flew over the Cuckoo's NestÃ'› the movie explores the themes of individuality and rebelli on against conformity. Forman makes various points which help us understand which situations of repression can lead an individual to insanity. These points again are these different situations patients overcome, human dignity, and the pressures we face from society to conform.The director notes that Nurse is eke a â€Å"motor pulling too big a load,† hinting at the fact that society cannot contain all of its hidden secrets. Any attempt would overload the system with the amount of people known as â€Å"unstable† and would cause this motor to explode under the pressure. But the point remains that modern society needs no such thing. Instead, individuality and diversity should be embraced, since globalization and the melting pots that cities have become threaten the variety of people that was once so common. People can only learn from diversity and allow the society prospers with fair opportunity for all. One flew over the cuckoos nest One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, the director refers to the many struggles people individually face in life. Through the conflict between Nurse Ratchet and McCarthy, the movie explores the themes of individuality and rebellion against conformity. With these themes, Forman makes various points which help us understand which situations of repression can lead an individual to insanity. These points include: different situations patients overcome, human dignity, and the pressures we face from society to conform.Through these points, Forman encourages the viewer to consider that people react differently in the face of repression, and makes the viewer realize the value of alternative states of perception, rather than simply writing them off as â€Å"crazy. † Nurse Ratchet Is notorious for her desire to exercise complete control over the men who are under her Jurisdiction on the psych ward, both as patients and as employees. In doing so, Nurse Ratchet becomes a metaphor for the entir e mental institution, the government, society at large or any and every powerful institution that exists to regulate, control, and categorize groups of people.The institutions of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest claim that they categorize the patients as insane in order to â€Å"treat† and â€Å"rehabilitate† them. But it quickly becomes clear in the novel that this rehabilitation is more controlling than it is helpful for any mental ailment: the shock treatment table, the red pills that cause memory loss, the daily meetings that pit men against each other, and the list on Nurse Ratchet's desk to record and reward the men for betraying each other's secrets are all ways to force people to obey, not to sake them well.There Is no recreation outdoors. There Is little exposure to the outside world. All stateless and therapy sessions are scheduled with precision, and to deviate from that schedule is to be a nuisance to Nurse Ratchet. This is exactly as Nurse Ratchet prefers i t to be, because she can strip the humanity of her patients in order to be in complete control and run her ward like a machine. The hospital, Just like society, suppresses the individuality of the patients by gaining control of their lives and forcing them to conform.In the movie, the mental hospital is metaphor for the oppression Forman sees in modern society. Through Chief, we see how his way of interpreting the world emphasizes the oppressive social pressure to conform. He sees modern society as a machinelike, oppressive force and the hospital as a repair shop from the people who do not fit Into their role as cogs in the machine. Those who do not conform to society's rules and conventions are considered defective products and are labeled mentally Ill and sent for treatment. In the movie, the hospital is portrayed as a dangerous place.The patients Charlie Seasick, Chief, gettable. He sees Nurse Ratchet as a â€Å"watchful robot, mechanically controlling the ward†. The hospi tal is not about healing, but about dehumidifying and manipulating the patients until they are weak and willing to conform. Another way in which this is done is through the nurses' need to keep the patients medicated. McCarthy, the protagonist, battles against letting the oppressive society make him into a machinelike drone. He manages to maintain his individuality until his ultimate objective- bringing his individuality to others- is complete.However, when his oldness is provoked one too many times by Nurse Ratchet, he ends up being destroyed by modern society's machines of oppression. Through the points Forman is making in the movie, we begin to see the different situations in which the patients struggle to overcome. Whether insane or not, the hospital is undeniably in control of the fates of its patients. Through the points Forman is making in the movie about the hospital's ways of gaining control of the patients, we see how this parallels with the ways in which society gains con trol over individuals.Musher's character is essential to the novel because he battles against the oppressive society, and holds characteristics that clash with ward- representing sexuality, freedom, and self-determination. Throughout the movie, the sane actions of men collides with the insane actions of the institution. Through Chief, the movie establishes that McCarthy is not, in fact, crazy, but rather that he is trying to manipulate the system to his advantage. Musher's trajectory through the novel is the opposite of Chief's: he starts out sane and powerful but ends up a helpless vegetable, having sacrificed himself for the benefit of all the patients.Even though Bromide's comparisons of the hospital with machinery may seem â€Å"crazy† to readers at the beginning of the movie, they actually reveal his insight into the hospital's large power over the patients. In Mills Formant's One Flew over the Cuckoo's NestÃ'› the movie explores the themes of individuality and rebelli on against conformity. Forman makes various points which help us understand which situations of repression can lead an individual to insanity. These points again are these different situations patients overcome, human dignity, and the pressures we face from society to conform.The director notes that Nurse is eke a â€Å"motor pulling too big a load,† hinting at the fact that society cannot contain all of its hidden secrets. Any attempt would overload the system with the amount of people known as â€Å"unstable† and would cause this motor to explode under the pressure. But the point remains that modern society needs no such thing. Instead, individuality and diversity should be embraced, since globalization and the melting pots that cities have become threaten the variety of people that was once so common. People can only learn from diversity and allow the society prospers with fair opportunity for all. One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest In Ken Kesey's novel One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest, society consideres the patients as insane individuals with only the hopes of being treated. Dale Harding, one of the acutes, stated â€Å"Never before did I realiz that mental illness could have the aspect of power, power. Think of it: perhaps the more insane a man is, the more powerful he could become†, by this Harding realizes that mental illness has the power to bring fear, and the power to manipulate people. Due to their mental illnesses, both characters, Chief Bromden and Billy Bibbit, appear to be weak and powerless. However both have the aspect of true power, and with that their potential for freedom is greater. Chief Bromden uses the power of silence to his advantage. Everyone on the ward thinks that he is deaf and dumb, however, their perception on the Cheif is wrong, because of what happenes in the novel’s end. Chief Bromden is a very large man who unfortunetly thinks of himself as being miniscule. His silece provides positive effects; he is able to hear everything that goes on in the meetings where the doctors and nurses discuss the future of the patients. The doctors and nurses don’t think that Chief Bromden can hear what they are saying, so therefor they don’t hesitate to say anything in front of him. â€Å"They don’t bother not talking out loud about their hate secrets when I’m nearby because they think I’m deaf and dumb†(10). This is very beneficial because Chief Bromden knows what takes place in the ward, and knows what it takes to survive. Although he appears powerless, he actually has a lot of power because of all the knowledge he’s gained through observation and listening in on conversations. Chief states that the world is like a great big machine, Combine, and everybody is just part of that machine. The parts that are broken are sent to this hospital to be â€Å"fixed† again – to be wired back into this machine. He doesn’t want to be part of it, and hides in the fog. He resists it and part of the resistance is pretending to be deaf and speechless. He describes the Big Nurse in machine, â€Å"she blows up bigger and bigger, big as a tractor, so big I can smell the machinery inside the way you smell a motor pulling too big a load†¦. her gestures are] precise, automatic [and] her face is smooth, calculated, and precision-made. † (p. 5). Eventually, Chief shows that he can speak and hear perfectly. He tries to protect McMurphy by explaining how the system works based on what he has observed. He tells McMurphy that the nurse will go to prevent McMurphy from gaining power. But, McMurphy is too confident. Chief tries to protect McMurphy again wh en he gets into a fight with the black boys. And he tries to protect McMurphy again when they go to the disturbed ward and are subjected to electroshock therapy; the only ways of keeping the asylum patients controlled. When McMurphy finally returns to the ward as a vegetable, Chief frees him from the physical pain of his body and sofocates him with a pillow. Because of McMurphy, Chief finally has the true power and courage to break free from the hospital through a window after breaking it the way McMurphy trained him to do so. Ironically, the Cheif's insanity allowed him to attain a power beyond his limits; a power that gave him freedom and allowed him to escape the crazy world in the hospital. One flew over the cuckoos nest One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, the director refers to the many struggles people individually face in life. Through the conflict between Nurse Ratchet and McCarthy, the movie explores the themes of individuality and rebellion against conformity. With these themes, Forman makes various points which help us understand which situations of repression can lead an individual to insanity. These points include: different situations patients overcome, human dignity, and the pressures we face from society to conform.Through these points, Forman encourages the viewer to consider that people react differently in the face of repression, and makes the viewer realize the value of alternative states of perception, rather than simply writing them off as â€Å"crazy. † Nurse Ratchet Is notorious for her desire to exercise complete control over the men who are under her Jurisdiction on the psych ward, both as patients and as employees. In doing so, Nurse Ratchet becomes a metaphor for the entir e mental institution, the government, society at large or any and every powerful institution that exists to regulate, control, and categorize groups of people.The institutions of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest claim that they categorize the patients as insane in order to â€Å"treat† and â€Å"rehabilitate† them. But it quickly becomes clear in the novel that this rehabilitation is more controlling than it is helpful for any mental ailment: the shock treatment table, the red pills that cause memory loss, the daily meetings that pit men against each other, and the list on Nurse Ratchet's desk to record and reward the men for betraying each other's secrets are all ways to force people to obey, not to sake them well.There Is no recreation outdoors. There Is little exposure to the outside world. All stateless and therapy sessions are scheduled with precision, and to deviate from that schedule is to be a nuisance to Nurse Ratchet. This is exactly as Nurse Ratchet prefers i t to be, because she can strip the humanity of her patients in order to be in complete control and run her ward like a machine. The hospital, Just like society, suppresses the individuality of the patients by gaining control of their lives and forcing them to conform.In the movie, the mental hospital is metaphor for the oppression Forman sees in modern society. Through Chief, we see how his way of interpreting the world emphasizes the oppressive social pressure to conform. He sees modern society as a machinelike, oppressive force and the hospital as a repair shop from the people who do not fit Into their role as cogs in the machine. Those who do not conform to society's rules and conventions are considered defective products and are labeled mentally Ill and sent for treatment. In the movie, the hospital is portrayed as a dangerous place.The patients Charlie Seasick, Chief, gettable. He sees Nurse Ratchet as a â€Å"watchful robot, mechanically controlling the ward†. The hospi tal is not about healing, but about dehumidifying and manipulating the patients until they are weak and willing to conform. Another way in which this is done is through the nurses' need to keep the patients medicated. McCarthy, the protagonist, battles against letting the oppressive society make him into a machinelike drone. He manages to maintain his individuality until his ultimate objective- bringing his individuality to others- is complete.However, when his oldness is provoked one too many times by Nurse Ratchet, he ends up being destroyed by modern society's machines of oppression. Through the points Forman is making in the movie, we begin to see the different situations in which the patients struggle to overcome. Whether insane or not, the hospital is undeniably in control of the fates of its patients. Through the points Forman is making in the movie about the hospital's ways of gaining control of the patients, we see how this parallels with the ways in which society gains con trol over individuals.Musher's character is essential to the novel because he battles against the oppressive society, and holds characteristics that clash with ward- representing sexuality, freedom, and self-determination. Throughout the movie, the sane actions of men collides with the insane actions of the institution. Through Chief, the movie establishes that McCarthy is not, in fact, crazy, but rather that he is trying to manipulate the system to his advantage. Musher's trajectory through the novel is the opposite of Chief's: he starts out sane and powerful but ends up a helpless vegetable, having sacrificed himself for the benefit of all the patients.Even though Bromide's comparisons of the hospital with machinery may seem â€Å"crazy† to readers at the beginning of the movie, they actually reveal his insight into the hospital's large power over the patients. In Mills Formant's One Flew over the Cuckoo's NestÃ'› the movie explores the themes of individuality and rebelli on against conformity. Forman makes various points which help us understand which situations of repression can lead an individual to insanity. These points again are these different situations patients overcome, human dignity, and the pressures we face from society to conform.The director notes that Nurse is eke a â€Å"motor pulling too big a load,† hinting at the fact that society cannot contain all of its hidden secrets. Any attempt would overload the system with the amount of people known as â€Å"unstable† and would cause this motor to explode under the pressure. But the point remains that modern society needs no such thing. Instead, individuality and diversity should be embraced, since globalization and the melting pots that cities have become threaten the variety of people that was once so common. People can only learn from diversity and allow the society prospers with fair opportunity for all.

Bacterial Meningitis

An attack of bacterial meningitis can be devastating because most of its victims are usually children or infants. The symptoms of the disease can also be misread leading to improper or inadequate treatment with fatal consequences. As risks of misdiagnosis are many, it is recommended that the services of a physician be sought as quickly as the first symptoms are noticed. Meningitis is the disease caused by the inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and the spinal cord (Schultz, 1991).While the cause of meningitis could be a virus, in the majority of cases it is bacterial. Bacterial meningitis is caused by several agents with the leading one being Haemophilus influenza (Schultz, 1991). Haemophilus influenzae is a type â€Å"b† strain and it is so named because when it was first discovered researchers believed that it was the cause of influenza or flu (Schultz, 1991), but scientists have since discovered that the flu is actually caused by a virus. A second cause of bacterial meningitis is Neisseria Meningitides or meningococcus (Meningitis, 2007).While this type of bacterial meningitis could affect people of different age groups, it is mostly evident during epidemics and especially in places where people live in congested or crowded environments (Meningitis, 2007). Recent attacks of meningitis that took place on crowded places are the epidemics in the slums of Brazil that killed 11,000 people in 1974 and the 1996 attacks in the Sahel region that left 16,000 people dead (Meningitis, 2007). A third cause of bacterial meningitis is Strepococcus Pneumoniae which is also known as pneumococcus.(Meningitis, 2007). This kind of bacterial meningitis is most common among adults and is noticeable by pneumococcus infections in various parts of the body (Meningitis, 2007). Such infections will be noticed in the victim’s ears or could appear as sinuses. While these are the main causes of bacterial meningitis, in some cases the disease could be cause d by an attack of tuberculosis or Lyme disease. (Meningitis, 2007). Meningitis has various characteristics depending on the age of the victim and the cause of the infection.In infants, the symptoms of a bacterial meningitis attack will normally be preceded by an attack of diarrhea, a runny nose or vomiting (Hirsch, 2007). Some of the most common symptoms of meningitis in infants are fever, irritability, headaches, photophobia or eye sensitivity to light, stiff neck and skin rashes (Hirsch, 2007). Correct diagnosis of bacterial meningitis can only be done by a doctor and the service of a professional should be sought immediately there is suspicion that a meningitis attack has taken place.This is especially because the symptoms of bacterial meningitis are non-specific. In infants and children, other symptoms that could be indicative of meningitis include nuchal rigidity, opisthotonos, convulsions and anorexia (Miller, Gaur & Kumar, 2008). Other symptoms that Miller (2008) says could b e associated with meningitis are the bulging of the fontanelle, alterations of the sensorium and in extreme cases, coma. In infants, one indication that a bacterial meningitis attack could have taken place is the sound produced when the infant is crying.When the infant cries in an eerie high-pitched voice, it is a sign that it could be suffering from bacterial meningitis (Schultz, 1991). While bacterial meningitis mainly attacks children and infants, it can also attack adults and especially the elderly. Fatalities from bacterial meningitis were common in the past but today, when medical attention is offered at the appropriate time, the fatalities are fewer and mostly happen to very young infants or the elderly (Schultz, 1991).For people above two years of age, the symptoms of bacterial meningitis will include headaches, a stiff neck and a high fever (Schoenstadt, 2008). Bacterial meningitis can be transmitted in various ways but it is not considered a highly contagious disease. The disease is spread from one person to another when there is an exchange of secretions from the throat or other respiratory secretions. (Schoenstadt, 2008). For this reason, the disease can be spread when a person comes into close contact with a victim who is coughing.Additionally, the disease will be spread through kissing although it is not spread as easily as the common cold or influenza. People who have prolonged contact with victims of bacterial meningitis will be at risk of contracting the disease especially when they are in the same house or have direct contact with the victim’s oral secretions (Schoenstadt, 2008). A wife or girlfriend risks contracting the disease from her spouse or partner and vice versa. In addition, bacterial meningitis is airborne and can be spread when one stays close to a victim who is coughing or laughing (Hirsch, 2008).Hirsch (2008) further advises that the sharing of utensils such as drinking glasses and spoons as well as the sharing of sanitar y products such as hand towels can also spread the disease. Moreover, coming into contact with the stool of an infected person can also lead to infection. This puts the children who share many facilities in day care at particularly huge risk of infection from their play mates who could be sick. Hirsch (2008), however, emphasizes that casual contact with victims does not put one at risk of contracting bacterial meningitis.Bacterial meningitis has a reputation for causing fatalities quickly and the measures taken to treat it have to be taken as quickly as possible. Schultz (1991) notes that because the disease is known to spread extremely quickly, the moment it is suspected to have infected a person, treatment with intravenous antibiotics is started immediately, even before the results of the tests carried out to test for the diseases are out. Once bacterial meningitis is confirmed, the patient will be put on medication that will normally last a week or longer.To treat bacterial menin gitis, antibiotics such as cephalosporins are used. The two best-known cephalosporins are Claforan and Rocephin. (Schultz, 1991). Since bacterial meningitis spreads quickly and also puts at risk those who are close to the patient, medication is also provided for those sharing living quarters with the patient. As a preventive measure, those close to the victim will put on a short course of the antibiotic rifampin. Apart from the possibility of fatality that is associated with bacterial meningitis, it is also known for other neurological complications (Schultz, 2008).Such complications, which could include permanent loss of hearing, convulsions and mental retardation, can ruin the life of a victim. This puts the children who suffer bacterial meningitis at very grave risks. To forestall the possibility of these complications, treatment for children includes the antibiotics and an additional corticosteroid, dexamethasone, which is administered to prevent loss of hearing (Schultz, 1991). As with all diseases, preventive measures with bacterial meningitis are more effective than the curative ones.To prevent the development of the disease, a number of vaccines have been developed for the most vulnerable group, children and infants. To guard against the leading cause of bacterial meningitis, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), a vaccine is used (Shultz, 1991). This vaccine is known as polysaccharide and has been in use since 1985(Schultz, 1991). The vaccine has been found to be effective in children aged two years and above and for this reason it is administered as a routine vaccine to children who are two years old.In addition, two more vaccines have been developed for children. In 1987, a vaccine was developed for children 18 months and over (Schultz, 1991). This vaccine, known as â€Å"a conjugate vaccine† was found to have more efficacy than the previously used polysaccharide vaccines for children in this age group (Schultz, 1991). By 1989, the conjugate v accine had been found to be effective in children as young as 15 months and was already being administered to them.Schultz (1991) further notes that a third vaccine was developed in 1989 that could be administered to infants two months old. The development of vaccines for infants and children enables doctors to administer bacterial meningitis vaccines along with the other vaccines as part of a child’s routine immunization regimen. Today, three meningitis vaccinations are administered on an infant before he reaches six months while a fourth vaccination, also known as a booster, is administered when the child is one year old (Bacterial meningitis 2).While research into other forms of vaccines for meningitis goes on, there is a vaccine that has been developed for prevention of Stretococcal pneumoniae which has been found to be effective with adults aged above 65 years (Isom, 2005). Apart from vaccination, bacterial meningitis is preventable in many other forms. One of the easies t ways to contain an outbreak of the disease is to report suspected cases to the relevant state or health authorities to enable treatment of those who might be affected.In addition, whenever people who are not infected share premises with victims of bacterial meningitis, the former should be given antibiotics to protect them against the risk of contracting the disease from the victims (Collins, 1997). Equally important as a preventive measure is the ability to exercise proper travel precautions. While epidemics of bacterial meningitis are unlikely to occur in the US, there are regions that experience outbreaks of the disease frequently and for this reason any overseas travel should be preceded by a visit to the doctor to see if vaccination against bacterial meningitis is necessary (Bacterial meningitis 2).While the prevalence of bacterial meningitis is low in the US, epidemics of the disease have led to massive deaths in parts of Africa and Brazil. An outbreak of the disease killed about 25,000 people in West Africa in 1996 (Hewarldt, 2006). In 2005, an outbreak of bacterial meningitis spread through eleven Chinese cities killing eleven people (Emerling, 2005). The disease has a higher prevalence rate in crowded neighborhoods. In the US, the disease has a higher incidence rate amongst African American and Native American populations while among infants, boys tend to more susceptible to the disease than girls (Collins, 1997).References Bacterial meningitis 2. Department of health promotion education. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://www. dhpe. org/infect/Bacmeningitis. html Collins, J. (1997). Cooperation halts meningitis outbreak; leaves positive public perception. Journal of environmental health, 59(9) 20+ Emerling, G. (2005). Bacteria suspected in death of boy, 6; meningitis test results awaited. The washington times, B01 Herwaldt, L. (2006). Bacterial meningitis: When symptoms start, act fast.University of Iowa hospitals and clinics. Retrieved Febru ary 23, 2009 from http://www. uihealthcare. com/topics/medicaldepartments/internalmedicine/bacterialmeningitis/index. html Hirsch, L. (2007). Meningitis. Kidshealth for parents. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://kidshealth. org/parent/infections/lung/meningitis. html Isom, W. (2005). A dash to the finish: Young doctor overcomes battle with life-threatening illness. Black enterprise, 35(7), 153 Meningitis. (2007). The Columbia encyclopedia, (6).New york: Columbia university press. Miller, L. , Gaur, H. , & Kumar, A. (2008). Meningitis , bacterial. Emedicine from webmd. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://emedicine. medscape. com/article/961497-overview Schoenstadt, A. (2008). Bacterial meningitis. Medtv. Updated July 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://meningitis. emedtv. com/bacterial-meningitis/bacterial-meningitis. html# Schultz, D. (1991). Bacterial meningitis; vaccines, antibiotics fight sometimes fatal disease. FDA Consumer, 25(7), 36+